History of Indian Classical Music

History of Indian Classical Music (Brief but Detailed)

Indian classical music originated in Vedic times, nearly 6,000 years ago, and is based on the philosophy of Nāda Brahma (sound as divine). The Vedas contain references to musical notes and rhythm, with the Sāma Veda forming the foundation of Indian music. It consists of Rigveda hymns set to melody, sung using three to seven notes during rituals. Musical meters in the Rigveda are believed to be the earliest source of ragas. In ancient times, music was classified into Gandharva, which was formal and ceremonial, and Gāna, which was informal and meant for entertainment.

A major theoretical foundation was laid by Sage Bharata in the Nāṭya Śāstra (200 BCE–200 CE), which systematized music, dance, and drama and introduced the concept of Rasa, a key aesthetic principle in Indian arts. Another important treatise, Sangita Ratnakara, was written by Sharangadeva in the 13th century. Divided into seven chapters on swara, raga, tala, composition, and instruments, it influenced both Hindustani and Carnatic music traditions.

During the medieval (Muslim) period (c. 1200–1700 CE), Hindustani classical music developed rapidly due to Persian influence. Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE) played a crucial role by introducing new ragas and musical forms such as Qawwali and Tarana, along with instruments like the sitar and tabla. Under the Mughal ruler Akbar, music flourished, and his court musician Tansen (c. 1500–1586 CE) composed famous ragas such as Miyan ki Todi, Miyan ki Malhar, and Darbari Kanada, shaping many gharanas.

By this time, Indian classical music had clearly divided into Hindustani (North India) and Carnatic (South India) systems. In the 18th century, Khayal evolved from Dhrupad and became the main form of Hindustani music, leading to semi-classical styles like Thumri. Royal patronage by Nawabs and Maharajas supported musicians until the British period, when this system declined.

After India’s independence in 1947, classical music moved from royal courts to public concerts and institutions. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande helped popularize and systematize Hindustani music. In the 20th century, artists like Pandit Ravi Shankar and Ustad Ali Akbar Khan introduced Indian classical music to global audiences, earning worldwide recognition.

What is Raga?

What is Raga?

A Raga is the foundation of Indian classical music. It is a melodic framework made of selected musical notes (swaras) arranged in a specific order, used to create a particular mood or emotion.

A raga is not just a scale. It is a set of rules that guide how notes are used, emphasized, and ornamented to express rasa (feeling).

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Definition

A raga can be defined as:

A melodic structure that evokes a specific emotion and is formed according to fixed rules of swaras, ascent (Aroha), descent (Avaroha), and characteristic phrases.

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Main Features of a Raga

• Swaras: Selected notes from the seven basic notes (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni)

• Aroha: Ascending order of notes

• Avaroha: Descending order of notes

• Vadi: Most important note

• Samvadi: Second most important note

• Pakad: Characteristic phrase of the raga

• Time Theory: Each raga is traditionally sung or played at a specific time of day or season

• Rasa: The emotion or mood (peaceful, joyful, devotional, etc.)

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Importance of Raga

• Ragas give identity and structure to Indian classical music

• They allow creativity within discipline

• Different ragas express different moods and emotions

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Example

• Raga Yaman – peaceful and devotional, usually performed in the evening

• Raga Bhairav – serious and meditative, performed in the morning

ONLINE HELP:

https://raag-hindustani.com/Scales1.html

Understanding Shruti

What is Shruti? 
In Indian classical music, the term Shruti refers to the smallest gradation of sound that the human ear can detect and differentiate. Originating from the Sanskrit word “श्रु” (śru), meaning “to hear,” shruti is not just a musical note but an auditory phenomenon—a sensation of sound that lies between the fundamental notes (swaras). While Western music is built on semitones, Indian music recognizes a greater range of microtones, which are theoretically divided into 22 shrutis per octave. 

Shruti in Practice 
The idea of shruti underpins the flexibility and subtlety of Indian classical music, allowing artists to convey nuanced emotions that resonate deeply with listeners. Although Indian music primarily uses seven main notes (swaras), each note is associated with a spectrum of microtonal variations, creating unique expressions and enabling a dynamic dialogue between melody and mood. 

Microtonal Adjustments: Artists often adjust shrutis within the context of different ragas, enhancing certain frequencies to convey specific emotional qualities. 

Enhanced Expressiveness: The use of shruti variations enables a deeper emotional and spiritual engagement, as the listener perceives not just the primary note but also its finer nuances. 

The Importance of Shruti in Tuning and Performance 
Shruti plays a critical role in the tuning of Indian instruments and vocal music. Unlike Western music, which uses a standard tuning system, Indian musicians often tune their instruments and voices based on the raga they are performing. This can vary between performances, as musicians adapt to the emotional and atmospheric qualities they wish to evoke. 

Darbari Kanada

✔ Thaat: Asāvari

✔ Jati: Vakra–Sampūrṇa (primarily descent-oriented)

AROH:         .n  S   R   g   R   S  ,  M   P   d   n   R.   S. 

AVROH:       S.   d   n   P   M   P   g   M   R   S 

PAKAD  :     g   M    R   S ,   .d    .n    S    R    S   

TIME  OF  PLAYING :   Late night    

✔ Vadi: Re

✔ Samvadi: Pa

✔ Ang: Kanada-ang + Durbār-ang

✔ Key signature phrases:

• S d~ n~ p M P

• M g~~ R S

• n S R g~ R S

✔ Core identity:

• Heavy andolan on komal g, d, n

• Gamak-oriented poorvanga

• Deep, grave night rāga

• Descent-dominant (avaroha-pradhān)

• Vakra movement always

• Phrases more important than scale

• No straight ascent

    

SLOW  COMPOSITION in Teena Taal (16 Beats) starting at 12th beat  STHAI:  

          3                             X                          2                              0 PP  |  gM  RS  .nS   R-SR  |  g    g    g    gM  |  R    SS    .nS    RS  |  .d    .n    .P .M.M | .P   .d.d    .n    S  |  R    R    R    RP  |  gM   RS   .nS   RS  |  .d    .n   .P MM  |  P    PP    MP    nP  |  g    g    g    gM  |  R    SS    .nS    RS  |   .d    .n    .P  

ANTARA:    

       3                        X                          2                              0 MM | P   dd    n    S. |  R.   R.   R.   R.P.| g.M.  R.S.  nS.  R.S.| .d    .n    .P MM | P   PP   MP  nP |  g     g     g     gM |  R     SS    .nS    RS | .d    .n    .P  TODE:  Will start at SUM (X – 1st beat) and merge into SUM after a Tihai (Triplet). Tihai has been shaded X 1. SRgg   RgMM  gMPP  MPdd | Pdnn  dnS.S.  S.ndP  MgRS | gMRS  .d.nSR   g   gMRS | .d.nSR   g   gMRS  .d.nSR | X  2. MgRM  gRMg  .nSRg  ndPn | dPnd  PdnS.  M.g.r.M.  g.R.M.g. | R.S.nS.  S.ndP  MgRS  .d.nSR |  g   .d.nSR   g   .d.nSR | X 

Raga Darbari Kanada is derived from Ashawari Scale. Raga Darbari Kanadas’ Jathi is Sampoorna - Shadawa. Its ascent is NS , RG , RS , MP , D , NS and its descent is S , D , N , P , MP , G , MRS. It used al the seven notes in ascent and used six notes in descent. 

Raga Darbari Kanada catch notes are G , RR , S , D , NS , R , S. Raga Darbari Kanada vadi note is “R” and its samavadi note is “P”. Raga Darbari Kanada is poorrangavadi raga because its vadi note “R” is first part in the octave. Raga Darbari Kanada is singing at the mid night (3^rd quarter of night).

Purvanga (or Purvang) and Uttaranga (or Uttarang)

 In Hindustani classical music, the terms Purvanga (or Purvang) and Uttaranga (or Uttarang) refer to the lower and upper halves of the octave (saptak) respectively, and not to specific sections or stages of a khyal performance.

Definitions

• Purvanga (Purvang):
  This denotes the lower tetrachord of the octave, comprising the notes Sa, Re, Ga, and Ma (S R G M).
• Uttaranga (Uttarang):
  This denotes the upper tetrachord, comprising the notes Pa, Dha, Ni, and the upper Sa (P D N S′).

Relevance to Khyal and Raagas

Although these terms do not describe formal parts of a khyal, they are essential for understanding raag structure, melodic emphasis, and time theory:

• Raag Classification:
  Raagas are often classified as Purvanga-vadi or Uttaranga-vadi, depending on whether the vadi (dominant note) lies in the lower or upper half of the octave.
• Melodic Development:
  In a khyal performance, melodic elaboration—such as alap, bol-alap, taans, and sargams—tends to emphasize the register (Purvanga or Uttaranga) that is central to the raag’s identity.
• Time Theory of Raagas:
  This classification is closely linked to the traditional samay siddhant (time theory) of raagas.
• Purvanga-vadi raagas are generally performed during the first half of the day or night (approximately 12 p.m. to 12 a.m.).
• Uttaranga-vadi raagas are typically performed during the second half (approximately 12 a.m. to 12 p.m.).

While a standard khyal performance consists of compositional sections such as sthayi and antara, and is presented in vilambit (slow) and drut (fast) tempos, the terms Purvanga and Uttaranga specifically describe the melodic regions of the octave emphasized within that structure, rather than the performance form itself

Thaats (Hindustani Musical Scales)

 Thaats were created by a musicologist name Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (1860-1936) and his first ideas were inspired by the Mela System of Carnatic Music from South India.

Here are the 10 Thaats and some Ragas which belong to it.

1). Bilawal (Ionian mode): S R G M P D N S (no komal swar)

• Morning: Raag Alhaiya Bilawal, Raag Bilawal
• Evening: Raag Durga
• Night: Raag Bihag, Raag Hamsadhwani

2). Kalyan (Lydian mode): S R G M' P D N S (M' Teevra)

• Afternoon: Raag Shudh Sarang
• Evening: Raag Bhopali, Raag Meru Bihag, Raag Yaman
• Night: Raag Kedar 

3). Khamaj (Mixolydian mode): S R G M P D n S (n komal)

• Evening: Raag Desh, Raag Khamaj
• Night: Raag Gorakh Kalyan, Raag Champakali, Raag Jog, Raag Rageshree, Raag Saraswati, Raag Tilak Kamod

4). Bhairav (double harmonic): S r G M P d N S (rd-komal)

• Morning: Raag Ahir Bhairav, Raag Bairag, Raag Bhairav, Raag Jogiya, Raag Nat Bhairav, Raag Ramkali  

5). Kafi (Dorian mode): S R g M P D n S (gn Komal)

• Morning: Raag Asavari, Raag Jaunpuri
• Afternoon: Bhimpalasi
• Evening: Raag Kafi, Raag Patdeep
• Night: Raag Bageshree, Raag Chandrakauns, Raag Pilu, Raag Shivranjini

6). Asavari (Aeolian mode):  S R g M P d n - (gdn - komal)

• Morning Raag Asavari, Raag Jaunpuri
• Night: Raag Adana, Raag Darbari

7). Bhairavi (Phrygian mode): S r g M P d n S (rgdn- komal)

• Morning: Raag Bhairavi, Raag Komal Rishabh Asavari
• Night: Raag Malkauns

8). Poorvi - S r G M' P d N S (r M'd)  - rd - komal / M' Teevra)

• Dawn: Raag Lalit
• Afternoon: Raag Poorvi
• Evening: Raag Puriya Dhanashree 

9). Marwa - (Lydian b2) :  G M' P D N S (M' Teevra)

• Dawn: Raag Bhatiyar, Raag Sohini
• Evening: Raag Puriya Kalyan

10). Todi - S r g M' P d N S (rgM'd)

• Morning: Gujari Todi
• Afternoon: Raag Madhuvanti, Raag Multan

shrutis

The detailed study of the controversy regarding equality and in equality of shrutis in ancient, medieval and modern periods

Ancients who lived between the 4th century and 12th century believed that the interval between two shrutis was equal. This theory is called the Saman shruti antar. This was scientifically incorrect as science at that time was not developed. 

The medievals who were Lochana, Ahobala,Sri Nivas and Vyankathamukhi used the veena to locate the swaras. Because of this slightly advanced system of locating swaras on the stretched wire of veena, they realized that the interval between two shrutis is not equal.

 Therefore they did not accept the Saman Shruti antar of ancient writers like Bharata and Sarangadeva. Lochana, Ahobala and Srinivas lived between 15thC and 18th centuries and due to their advanced knowledge of shrutis , they found the interval between shrutis changed. 

Pandit Bhathkande the chief writer among moderns, lived in the 19th century. Thaats were created by a musicologist name Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (1860-1936) and his first ideas were inspired by the Mela System. During his time science had developed much and with the help of Acoustics or the science of sound , he discovered that the interval between shrutis was basically unequal and went further than the medievals and stated that even the location of komal Ri, komal Dha and Teewra Ma of medievals were wrong and placed the shudda swaras on the first shruti. His theory was correct as he used the modern major Diatonic scale or the Bilawal That as the proper shudda swar saptak.

What is Nada ?

Ahata Nada & Anhath Nada meaning in Indian Classical Music.

Ahata Nada. Sounds that are generated by a conscious effort are known as Ahata Nada. Singing, vocal notes, or animal sounds fall under this category

Anahata Nada. Sounds that occur naturally, without any definitive pattern or rhythm are called Anahata Nada. Nature sounds, ambient noises fall under this category. 

There are three main characteristics of this Nada: 

1.Pitch or Frequency

2.Intensity and loudness

3.Quality or Timber.

Pitch / Frequency

– Signifies whether Nada is high or low

The pitch of the sound-producing object depends upon the frequency (number of vibrations). The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch of the Nada, and the lower the frequency, the lower the pitch of the Nada. 

For example, the frequency of ‘Sa’ is 240, ‘Re’ is 270. therefore the frequency of ‘Re’ being higher than that of ‘Sa’ and the frequency of ‘Sa’ being lower than that of ‘Re’, the pitch of ‘Sa’ is lower than that of ‘Re.’ A Nada with a frequency of 60 to 4000 is possible for use in music.  

Intensity  signifies whether Nada is loud or weak

Intensity or Magnitude signifies whether a Nada is louder or weak and of greater or smaller amplitude. This characteristic is determined by the force used to obtain the Nada. 

When a string or surface of the Tabla is struck softly, the Nada would be heard over a smaller distance. However, if these are struck with greater force or a louder sound is produced from the throat, then the Nada would be heard over a greater distance. 

This is the intensity of Nada. Timbre – There are different mediums to produce Nada.

Timbre or Quality of Nada.

 

The different tonal quality produced through different mediums is called the timbre of a Nada. 

Through the timbre of Nada, it can be certain that a given Nada is obtained from a particular instrument of an individual. It is this difference of medium that gives the quality or timbre of Nada. 

What are Swaras (or Sur)

What are Swaras (or Sur) ?The word swara (meaning notes) is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Svar’, which means sound. There are different forms of sound.But the sound which is soothing to ear and which is musical is known as swaras or sur.

Hindustani classical music has 7 major notes also known as Shudha Swaras.

Sur - Long name

Sa-Shadaj

Re-Rishabh

Ga-Gandhar

Ma-Madhyam

Pa-Pancham

Dha-Dhaivat

Ni-Nishad

Shudha Swaras

Sa and Pa swaras are called pure swaras (shudha swaras) and have a fixed position's are also known as Achal Swaras.

Vikrit Swaras – Komal and Teevra

Swaras other than Achal swaras can be sung half note above or below their original position. They are known as Vikrit Swaras.

Re ,Ga,Dh,Ni can sung half note below and are known as Komal Swaras. Ma is sung half note above it’s original note and is known as Teevra Ma.

Thus in total there are 12 swaras –  7 shudh and 5 Vikrit. Out of 5 Vikrit swaras, 4 are Komal and 1 is Teevra.. 

 

Logic behind 22 Shrutis

 Shruthi is a Sanskrit work,  Shruthi is  sound capable of hearing from the ear.,

1). Sound capable of being used in Music.

2). Sound which can be distinctly heard by the ear.

3). Sound which can be identified one from the other.

Pleasing sounds to the ear called "Swears"   and every sound which is not musical hurts the ear is called,"Apswara" or "notice"

The Logic behind 22 Shrutis (‘Shruti-Nirman Chakra’)

The ancient logic on how different musical notes are created in a Spartak is very insightful and relevant.

The fundamental notes in music are S and P and the Tanpura is tuned to these notes for the same reason.

Other than P, the next important note is M because, the upper S' becomes the P of it.

The natural ratio of the frequencies of S:P is 100:150, and of S:M is 100:133.33333. These are obtainable after an analysis of an extremely well-tuned Tanpura. In other words, from any musical note (taken as 100), the note at 133.33333 % is it's Madhyam, and the note at 150 % is it's Pancham.

Therefore, beginning from any Shadja, if we continue the S:P cycle ahead by adding 50 % to the frequency of the earlier note, we shall complete the cycle, coming back to S' and giving 12 positions or places.

Similarly, if we continue the S:M cycle ahead by adding 33.33333 % to the earlier note, we shall complete the cycle, coming back to S' giving 12 additional positions or places.

In total, 24 places or 24 musical notes are obtained. (Refer to following figure)

Figure shows 'Shruti Nirman Chakra'The clockwise cycle is Shadja:Pancham (S:P) and the anticlockwise cycle is Shadja:Madhyam (S:M).

Thus, we get 24 places or musical notes or shrutis at the natural ratios of S:P and S:M.

Out of these, S and P have been considered 'Achala' or immovable or fixed by our ancestors. Subtracting these 2 from 24, we get 22 Shrutis.